Chapter 2 Migration Types, Causes And Consequences

The movement of people from one place to another is a fundamental aspect of human geography. Often, individuals move from their birthplace or usual place of residence to a different location. This movement is known as migration.

Migration is a significant factor in the redistribution of population over time and across geographical areas.

Historically, India has experienced influxes of migrants from various regions, including Central and West Asia, as well as Southeast Asia. The settlement of these groups has shaped the country's diverse population over centuries.

Conversely, large numbers of people have also migrated out of India in search of better opportunities, particularly to regions like the Middle East, Western Europe, North America, Australia, and parts of East and Southeast Asia.

Indian Diaspora

The term Indian Diaspora refers to the population of Indian origin living outside the territory of India.

Historical waves of Indian emigration include:

• First Wave (Colonial Period): Millions of Indian labourers migrated under the indentured labour system (often called the 'Girmit Act' contract). They were sent to various British, French, Dutch, and Portuguese colonies to work on plantations. Destinations included Mauritius, Caribbean Islands (Trinidad, Tobago, Guyana), Fiji, South Africa (by the British); Reunion Island, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Surinam (by French and Dutch); and Angola, Mozambique (by Portuguese). These labourers often faced harsh living conditions, comparable to slavery.
• Second Wave (Recent Times): Indians migrated to neighbouring countries (Thailand, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Brunei, African countries) seeking economic opportunities as professionals, artisans, traders, and factory workers. This trend continues. The oil boom in West Asia during the 1970s led to a significant outflow of semi-skilled and skilled Indian labour to that region.
• Third Wave (Post-1960s onwards): This wave comprised highly skilled professionals such as doctors and engineers (from the 1960s), followed by software engineers, management consultants, financial experts, and media professionals (from the 1980s). They migrated mainly to Western countries like the USA, Canada, UK, Australia, New Zealand, and Germany. This group is recognized for being highly educated, financially successful, and prosperous.

Following India's economic liberalization in the 1990s, this knowledge-based emigration further strengthened the Indian Diaspora, making it one of the most influential diasporas globally.

Indians living abroad have played significant roles in the development of their respective host countries.

Migration

The Census of India collects detailed information about migration within the country.

Migration data has been recorded since the first Census in 1881, initially based on the 'place of birth'.

Significant changes were made in subsequent Censuses:

• 1961 Census: Added two components: 'place of birth' specified as village or town, and 'duration of residence' at the place of enumeration if born elsewhere.
• 1971 Census: Included information on 'place of last residence' and 'duration of stay' at the current place of enumeration.
• 1981 Census onwards: Information on the 'reasons for migration' from the place of last residence was included and refined in subsequent Censuses.

The Census of India enumerates migration using two primary criteria:

• Place of Birth: A person is counted as a migrant if their place of birth is different from the place where they are currently enumerated (counted). Such a person is called a life-time migrant.
• Place of Last Residence: A person is counted as a migrant if their place of last usual residence is different from the place where they are currently enumerated. This person is known as a migrant by place of last residence.

According to the 2011 Census, approximately 455.8 million people (about 37% of the total population) were reported as migrants based on their place of last residence. Of these, 141.9 million had moved within the last ten years.

Streams Of Migration

Migration within a country (internal migration) and between countries (international migration) can be analysed based on flows or 'streams'.

Internal migration in India is typically categorised into four streams based on origin and destination:

• Rural to Rural (R-R)
• Rural to Urban (R-U)
• Urban to Urban (U-U)
• Urban to Rural (U-R)

Based on the 2011 Census data for migrants by place of last residence who moved in the last 10 years (141.9 million):

• 118.7 million were intra-state migrants (movement within the same state).
• This intra-state movement was predominantly by females.
• The main reason for female migration, especially over short distances within states (rural to rural), is marriage.

Comparing intra-state and inter-state migration streams by gender (Figs 2.1 a & b):

• Females are dominant in the Rural to Rural migration stream in both intra-state and inter-state movements, largely driven by marriage.
• Males are dominant in the Rural to Urban migration stream in inter-state movements, primarily seeking work and better economic opportunities in cities located in other states.

In addition to internal migration, India also experiences both immigration (people moving into India from other countries) and emigration (people moving out of India to other countries).

According to the 2011 Census, over 5 million people had migrated to India from other countries.

A large majority of these immigrants (about 88.9%) came from neighbouring countries.

The largest numbers of immigrants from neighbouring countries were from Bangladesh, followed by Nepal and Pakistan.

Spatial Variation In Migration

Migration patterns vary geographically within India.

Certain states and Union Territories act as major destinations, attracting migrants from other parts of the country. Examples include Maharashtra, Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana.

These destination regions primarily receive migrants from states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Rajasthan.

Maharashtra had the largest number of in-migrants, followed by Delhi, Gujarat, and Haryana.

Conversely, states like Uttar Pradesh recorded the highest number of net out-migrants (more people moving out than moving in).

Causes Of Migration

Despite emotional ties to their place of origin, millions of people migrate due to various reasons.

These reasons are generally categorized into two types:

• Push Factors: These are negative conditions at the place of origin that compel people to leave.
• Pull Factors: These are attractive conditions at the destination that draw people in.

Common push factors for migration in India, especially from rural to urban areas, include:

• Poverty and lack of economic opportunities.
• High population pressure on limited land resources.
• Lack of basic infrastructure and services like healthcare and education.
• Natural disasters (floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes, tsunamis).
• Wars and local conflicts.

Common pull factors attracting people to urban areas include:

• Better job opportunities and availability of regular work.
• Higher wages and potential for greater income.
• Better educational facilities.
• Improved healthcare services.
• Access to sources of entertainment and a wider range of amenities.

Reasons for migration differ significantly between males and females, as shown in Census data (Fig 2.2 a & b).

• For males, the primary reason for migration (about 26%) is work and employment.
• For females, the most significant reason for migration (about 67%) is marriage. This is especially dominant in rural areas across most of India (except Meghalaya, which follows different marital traditions). Other reasons like moving with household (family migration) are also important for females.

Migration due to marriage is relatively low for males (around 4%).

Consequences Of Migration

Migration is often a necessary movement in response to spatial disparities in opportunities. This movement creates both positive and negative consequences for both the area where people originate from (source region) and the area they move to (destination region). These consequences can be observed across economic, social, cultural, political, and demographic dimensions.

Economic Consequences

Positive:

• Remittances: A major economic benefit for the source region is the money sent back by migrants to their families. Remittances from international migrants are a significant source of foreign exchange for India. In 2002, India received US$ 11 billion in remittances. States like Punjab, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu benefit significantly from international remittances.
• Internal migration remittances, while smaller individually, collectively play an important role in the economies of source areas. They are primarily used for essential needs like food, debt repayment, healthcare, education, agricultural inputs, and house construction. Remittances are vital for the livelihoods of many poor families in states like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh (undivided), and Himachal Pradesh.
• Migration of labour from states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha contributed significantly to the success of the Green Revolution in agricultural areas of Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh by providing necessary workforce.

Negative:

• Overcrowding and Slums: Unregulated migration to metropolitan cities leads to overcrowding and congestion. This contributes to the development of slums and informal settlements in industrially developed states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Delhi.

Demographic Consequences

Migration results in the redistribution of population geographically within a country.

Positive: Rural-urban migration is a key factor contributing to the population growth of urban areas, supplying labour and increasing consumer base.

Negative: Migration often involves specific age groups and skill sets (age and skill selective). Out-migration from rural areas, particularly of young adults, can negatively impact the demographic structure of the source region (e.g., an ageing population, shortage of working-age people). High out-migration from states like Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Eastern Maharashtra has caused serious imbalances in the age and sex composition of these states, often leading to a shortage of males in source areas as they migrate for work.

Conversely, recipient regions may experience an imbalance with a higher proportion of working-age males.

Social Consequences

Positive:

• Migrants serve as agents of social change. They bring back new ideas, technologies, and practices (e.g., related to family planning, girls' education) from urban to rural areas, facilitating diffusion of innovations.
• Migration promotes the intermixing of people from diverse cultural backgrounds, fostering the evolution of a composite culture. It helps break down narrow social considerations and broadens people's perspectives.

Negative:

• Migration can lead to a sense of anonymity and social vacuum in new, often large, urban environments, which may cause feelings of dejection or isolation among individuals.
• This sense of detachment can sometimes push individuals towards anti-social activities, such as crime or substance abuse.

Migration also impacts the status of women, particularly when male family members migrate (male-selective migration). This leaves women behind in rural areas, often taking on increased physical and mental responsibilities.

However, when women migrate for education or employment themselves, it can enhance their autonomy, independence, and economic role.

Environmental Consequences

Negative:

• The high concentration of people due to rural-urban migration places immense pressure on urban social and physical infrastructure (housing, transport, utilities). This strain often leads to unplanned urban expansion and the proliferation of slums and informal settlements.
• Over-exploitation of natural resources in urban areas results in critical environmental problems, including depletion of groundwater resources, air pollution (from vehicles, industries, household fuels), insufficient waste management (sewage disposal, solid waste).
• Dense urban construction also contributes to the 'heat island' effect, raising urban temperatures.

While remittances are a key benefit for source regions, a major cost of migration, especially international migration, is the 'brain drain' or loss of human resources, particularly highly skilled individuals. The global market for advanced skills means dynamic economies attract trained professionals from poorer regions, potentially hindering development in the source countries by draining their skilled workforce.

Exercises

This section contains questions and exercises to help students review and understand the concepts covered in the chapter, including types, causes, and consequences of migration in the Indian context.

Choose The Right Answers Of The Followings From The Given Options

Multiple-choice questions designed to test basic knowledge and understanding of key facts and reasons related to migration in India as discussed in the chapter.

Answer The Following Questions In About 30 Words

Short answer questions requiring brief definitions and identification of main reasons and demographic impacts of migration.

Answer The Following Questions In About 150 Words

Longer answer questions that prompt detailed discussions on the consequences of international migration and the socio-demographic impacts of migration.